Islam has a long history and complex relationship with Russia. Today, Russia has the largest Muslim population in Europe, with Muslims accounting for around 15% of the total population. While Islam is one of Russia’s traditional religions, tensions and mistrust between Muslims and the state persist. This article will explore the history of Islam in Russia, the policies and attitudes of the Russian government towards Islam and Muslims, and the current status of Islamic life and communities in Russia.
History of Islam in Russia
Islam first reached the territories of modern Russia as early as the 7th century through trade and conquest. By the 16th century, Muslims already made up a sizeable portion of the population in parts of the Russian empire. Over the centuries, various Muslim khanates and kingdoms rose to prominence before being incorporated into Russia.
| Time Period | Key Events |
|---|---|
| 7th – 9th centuries | Islam spreads to Caucasus region and Volga region through trade and military campaigns of Umayyad and Abbasid Caliphates. |
| 13th – 15th centuries | Mongol Golden Horde (which converted to Islam) rules over areas that today make up Russia, bringing more Muslims. |
| 15th – 16th centuries | Khanates like the Khanate of Kazan and the Khanate of Astrakhan become important centers of Islam. |
| 18th century | Russian empire conquers Muslim-majority Volga region and Caucasus. |
However, as Russia expanded into these regions, it sought to suppress Muslim identity and Islamic practices. Mosques and madrassas were closed down and Islamic laws were replaced. While some Muslim communities resisted this Russification, Islam was largely stripped from the public sphere under Czarist policy.
Islam under the Soviet Union
Attitudes towards Islam continued to be hostile in the Soviet period. All religions were persecuted under communist state atheism, but Muslims faced heightened suspicion due to old rivalries with the Russian empire. However, the Soviet government established some secular Muslim institutions, like the Muslim Spiritual Directorate, to exert control over Islamic activities.
Key aspects:
- Thousands of mosques and religious schools were shut down.
- Public displays of Islam like wearing the hijab were banned.
- Islamic practices were driven underground.
- Muslims were portrayed as economically backwards in propaganda.
- Muslim cultural identity and traditions were weakened.
Despite this repression, Islam still persisted in small, isolated Muslim communities and took on new forms. Some Muslim peoples like the Tatars experienced a cultural revival and became more devoted. Sufi brotherhoods also spread.
Post-Soviet Period
With the collapse of the USSR, religious restrictions were lifted. This brought on an Islamic revival across Russia’s Muslim communities:
| Development | Description |
|---|---|
| Mosque construction | Over 8,000 new mosques were erected to replace those destroyed in Soviet times. |
| Hajj pilgrimages | Around 20,000 Russian Muslims undertake the Hajj every year after restrictions were removed. |
| Islamic education | Thousands of Quranic schools opened to teach Islam to new generations. |
| Muslim organizations | Hundreds of Islamic charitable organizations, advocacy groups and political parties formed. |
Initially, the Russian government took a hands-off approach to allow this revival to take place. However, concerns later grew over foreign influences and radicalization. The state imposed more oversight and control. Still, today’s Russia is undoubtedly more pluralistic for Muslims than the Soviet system.
Government Policies on Islam
While the Russian constitution enshrines religious freedom and equality, this does not always extend to Muslims in practice:
Restrictions on Muslims:
- Muslim organizations and activities need state approval, which is often denied.
- Many Islamic texts are banned as extremist literature.
- Unregistered mosques can be shut down by the authorities.
- Hijabs are prohibited in public schools.
- Muslims suffer unequal treatment and discrimination in society.
Government views of Islam:
- Sees Islam as foreign to Russian identity and culture.
- Views Islamic revival as linked to terrorism and extremism.
- Supports establishing a “traditional Russian Islam” controlled by the state.
- Utilizes state-aligned Muslim clerics and institutions like the Muslim Spiritual Directorate.
- Encourages harmony between Islam, Christianity and Russian nationalism.
Overall, the Russian government paternalistically tries to manage Islam and limit outside influences. Islam occupies an ambiguous role of being seen as traditional yet still alien to Russian identity.
Muslims in Today’s Russia
Despite restrictions, Islam is the second largest religion in Russia today after Orthodox Christianity:
- There are around 20 million Muslims, forming about 15% of the population.
- They are concentrated in regions like the Volga, the Northern Caucasus, major cities like Moscow.
- Ethnic groups with large Muslim populations include Tatars, Bashkirs, Chechens, and Dagestanis.
- Moscow has around 2 million Muslims, the most in any European city.
- Mosques can be found across Russia, though many are small and unregistered by the state.
- Major Islamic institutions are controlled by the Muslim Spiritual Directorate and Muftiates.
- Women in traditional Islamic dress are a common sight in Muslim-majority republics.
While maintaining Islamic faith and identity, most Russian Muslims are integrated into Russian society. Extremism appears to attract only a small minority involved with movements like the Islamic State.
Key Muslim Leaders and Organizations
- Ravil Gaynutdin – Russia’s Grand Mufti and head of the Muslim Spiritual Directorate.
- Talgat Tadzhuddin – Supreme Mufti and leader of Russia’s Central Muslim Spiritual Directorate.
- Yunus-Bek Yevkurov – Head of Ingushetia and supporter of traditional Russian Islam.
- Interregional Social Organization “Muslim Brotherhood” – Banned Islamic political party.
- Union of Muslims of Russia – Prominent Islamic organization in Russia.
Status of Interfaith Relations
Orthodox Christianity is promoted as central to Russian identity by the government and society. Due to this status and historical conflicts, some tensions between Orthodox and Muslim communities persist:
- Proselytization and conversion between faiths remains controversial.
- Nationalists on both sides oppose intermarriage between Orthodox and Muslims.
- Debates occur over mutual misconceptions, stereotypes and social differences.
- Conflict still affects Muslim-majority Northern Caucasus where wars occurred.
- Cooperation also takes place between Muslim and Orthodox institutions on shared social causes.
- Interfaith initiatives promoting tolerance receive state support and participation.
Despite these issues, most Russians value interfaith peace and there is little open sectarian conflict across the country.
Conclusion
Islam has survived over a millennium in Russia despite periods of oppression and secularization. Today, Russia’s large indigenous Muslim population is an established fact, though full religious freedom remains limited by the state’s authoritarian outlook. While suspicions between Russians and Muslims endure in places, most Muslim citizens consider themselves loyal adherents of both Islam and Russia. If moral leadership emerges, Russia has the chance to become a model for reconciliation between Islam and Orthodox Christianity within a pluralistic political system.