Imprisonment or incarceration is one of the most severe punishments that can be imposed on an individual by the criminal justice system. While the primary purpose of imprisonment is to restrict a person’s liberty and remove them from society as punishment for their crimes, incarceration also inflicts significant psychological and emotional trauma on prisoners.
In his seminal 1958 paper “On the Pains of Imprisonment,” sociologist Gresham Sykes outlined 5 key psychological “pains” or deprivations that are inherent to the experience of incarceration:
The Deprivation of Liberty
The most obvious pain of imprisonment is the loss of personal freedom and autonomy. Prisoners are confined within the walls of the prison and must adhere to strict routines and regulations governing nearly every aspect of their daily lives. They lose the ability to make choices about where to go, what to do, and who to see. This deprivation of liberty and self-determination can be psychologically damaging.
The Deprivation of Goods and Services
In prison, material possessions and access to goods and services are extremely limited. Inmates are typically afforded only the most basic items necessary for survival. Prisons provide food, clothing, shelter, and healthcare, but these are often substandard compared to what prisoners could obtain in the outside world. The deprivation of everyday luxuries and choices can be a constant source of frustration and stress.
The Deprivation of Heterosexual Relationships
Most prisoners are deprived of intimate relationships, especially heterosexual relationships. While some limited conjugal visits with spouses may be permitted in certain facilities, physical intimacy and sexuality are strictly controlled and limited in prison environments. The inability to form sexual and romantic bonds can contribute to loneliness and emotional turmoil for incarcerated individuals.
The Deprivation of Autonomy
In prison, inmates lack the autonomy to make even basic choices about their daily activities. Strict schedules dictate when prisoners must wake, eat, work, shower, sleep, and engage in recreation. Rigid rules govern movement and behavior within the facility. Prisoners may be treated more like children than adults, unable to exert control over basic aspects of their lives.
The Deprivation of Security
Ironically, imprisonment strips individuals of personal security rather than enhancing it. Crowded conditions, gang presence, and lack of privacy leave inmates vulnerable to physical and sexual victimization. The potential for violence and exploitation means prisoners must be constantly vigilant and wary of those around them. The inability to protect oneself creates a pervasive lack of safety and security in carceral environments.
Other pains and deprivations
While Sykes identified those 5 key pains, additional deprivations associated with imprisonment have been identified by later researchers:
The Deprivation of Identity
Incarceration strips people of their identities, reducing them to numbers and uniforms. Prisoners may be housed according to assigned numbers rather than names. Uniforms and strict regulations eliminate individualization in appearance and conduct. People lose their identities as family members, workers, or students.
The Deprivation of Trust
An atmosphere of distrust prevails in prison. Inmates cannot fully trust fellow prisoners or guards. Relationships become based on manipulation rather than sincerity. Lack of trust can create a paranoid mindset focused on self-preservation at all costs.
The Deprivation of Privacy
Prisoners lack any real privacy. Cells may be shared with cellmates, toilets and showers are public, and guards or cameras constantly surveil activities. The inability to ever be alone or keep personal matters confidential increases stress and anxiety.
The Deprivation of Meaningful Activity
Daily prison life is monotonous and regimented, lacking stimulation or meaning. Stifling boredom is rampant. Prisoners may be required to work but have little autonomy over the type of work performed. The days become endless and directionless.
The Deprivation of Healthy Food
Prison food is generally unappetizing and lacks variety or nutritional value. Limited access to fresh fruits, vegetables, or sources of protein takes a toll on inmates’ physical health. Unhealthy diets contribute to weight fluctuations, loss of muscle mass, and a myriad of medical issues.
Psychological Effects
These myriad deprivations and pains of imprisonment interact to produce significant adverse effects on inmates’ psychological and emotional well-being:
Depression
Loss of freedom and autonomy, isolation from loved ones, lack of privacy and control, and the bleak, monotonous routine of daily prison life contribute to acute depression in prisoners. Estimates suggest that up to 60% of inmates suffer from significant depression.
Anxiety
Pervasive distrust, lack of safety, constant surveillance, and authoritarian prison controls lead to anxiety, paranoia, and nervousness among inmates. Prisoners must be constantly alert and stressed about personal safety and avoiding conflicts.
Anger/Hostility
The prison environment breeds anger and frustration. Lack of autonomy and privacy, enforced powerlessness, danger, conflicts with other inmates or guards, and prison conditions lead to escalated hostility. Anger may manifest in aggression or violence.
Low Self-Worth
The deprivations of imprisonment, rigid controls, and loss of identity lead to a damaged self-concept. Prisoners struggle with feelings of worthlessness, insignificance, inadequacy, and low self-esteem. Some inmates may eventually accept their degraded status.
Alienation from Society
Prison removes people from the outside world and norms of society. Inmates become desocialized and estranged from life outside the institution. This alienation makes successful reintegration difficult upon release.
Post-Traumatic Stress
Violence, threats of violence, lack of privacy and safety, and constant stress cause trauma symptoms in some prisoners. Inmates may suffer from nightmares, hypervigilance, or flashbacks linked to dangerous experiences during incarceration.
Mental Illness
Prison conditions may exacerbate existing mental illnesses or contribute to the initial onset of issues like depression, anxiety disorders, schizophrenia, and more. Estimates suggest 25% to 50% of inmates have diagnosable mental illnesses.
Coping Mechanisms
Prisoners employ a variety of psychological coping mechanisms to manage the pains of imprisonment and survive the harsh realities of daily prison existence:
Withdrawal
Some inmates cope by withdrawing from social interactions and isolating themselves from other prisoners when possible. They retreat into passivity and attempt to get through their sentence largely disconnected.
Reliance on Routine
Strict prison routines and schedules help some inmates get through their days. Focusing on completing familiar routines reduces stress and provides a sense of control.
Finding Distractions
Hobbies, exercise, reading, writing, games, television, and other activities help distract some prisoners from the harsh realities of incarceration. Keeping the mind occupied makes time pass faster.
Joining Gangs
Some prisoners find belonging, identity, and protection in prison gangs along racial, ethnic, or geographical lines. Gang affiliation offers support, community, and security.
Becoming a Model Inmate
To incentivize better conditions or privileges, some inmates comply dutifully with all rules and expectations. Avoiding disciplinary infractions can sometimes lead to fewer restrictions.
Getting Religion
Religious faith provides some prisoners with a sense of inner peace, purpose, and mental resilience. Prison ministries offer support, counsel, and spiritual guidance.
Self-Medicating
Some prisoners abuse alcohol, drugs, or medications as a means of coping with their emotions. Intoxicants provide temporary escape or relief from psychological pain.
Planning Suicide
For some prisoners, suicide seems like the only escape from the desperate isolation, suffering, danger and powerlessness of incarceration. Thoughts of suicide occupied an estimated 21-53% of inmates.
Conclusion
Incarceration undoubtedly causes deep psychological wounds. While prisons aim to administer punishment through deprivation of liberty, they commonly inflict damage far beyond the simple loss of freedom. The harsh realities of daily prison life strip inmates of dignity, identity, and security while producing debilitating effects on mental health and emotional well-being.
Sykes’ conceptualization of the “pains of imprisonment” remains hugely influential. By highlighting the psychological traumas inherent to incarceration, his insights contributed to ongoing calls for greater humanity and dignity in prison management. Prisoners experience acute suffering while serving their sentences. Understanding and mitigating that harm continues to present an ethical imperative for justice systems worldwide.