Russia, the largest country in the world, was formed in stages between the 15th and 20th centuries. At its peak, the Russian Empire stretched across 3 continents and contained many diverse cultures and ethnicities within its borders. However, the tumultuous 20th century saw Russia lose control of many of these territories as new nations emerged and empires collapsed. By 1991, after the dissolution of the Soviet Union, Russia’s borders had shrunk dramatically from their historic height. Today, 14 countries that were once part of the Russian Empire or Soviet Union are now fully independent states no longer under Russian control.
The Russian Empire
The beginnings of the Russian Empire can be traced back to the 15th century with the rise of Muscovy. This was preceded by centuries of division and conflict amongst the Eastern Slavic and Finnic tribes that inhabited the lands around the Baltic and Black Seas. The Grand Duchy of Moscow steadily expanded its influence and territory throughout the 15th and 16th centuries through a mix of military conquest, diplomatic maneuvers and dynastic inheritances. By the late 17th century, the Tsardom of Russia had grown into a huge Eurasian power under Tsar Peter the Great.
Further expansion in the 18th and 19th centuries pushed Russia’s borders to their furthest reaches, often at the expense of the declining Ottoman and Persian empires. By the early 20th century, the Russian Empire encompassed much of Eastern Europe, Central Asia and even parts of the Pacific coast, including:
- Finland
- Poland
- The Baltic states (Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania)
- Belarus
- Ukraine
- Moldova
- Armenia
- Azerbaijan
- Georgia
- Kazakhstan
- Kyrgyzstan
- Tajikistan
- Turkmenistan
- Uzbekistan
Russia’s costly involvement in World War I led to widespread discontent and eventually revolution. The Russian Empire collapsed in 1917, giving way to the new communist state of the Soviet Union. However, the territorial losses had only just begun.
The Soviet Union
The Soviet Union inherited most of the land of the old Russian Empire. However, the chaos of revolution and civil war in the early 1920s allowed some territories to break away and form independent nations, including:
- Finland
- Poland
- The Baltic states (Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania)
The Soviet Union regained some of this land through expansion and annexation during World War II. But by 1991, pressures for self-determination and democracy led to the dissolution of the increasingly unstable superpower. The following Soviet republics declared independence:
- Armenia
- Azerbaijan
- Belarus
- Estonia
- Georgia
- Kazakhstan
- Kyrgyzstan
- Latvia
- Lithuania
- Moldova
- Tajikistan
- Turkmenistan
- Ukraine
- Uzbekistan
This marked the final collapse of the old Russian empires. All 14 of these nations are now fully independent sovereign states outside of Russia’s control.
Reasons for Independence
There were several driving forces behind this widespread trend of independence amongst Russia’s former territories:
Nationalism
The lands captured by Russian expansion contained diverse ethnic and cultural groups – Ukrainians, Poles, Georgians, Armenians etc. 19th century ideas of nationalism and romanticism led these groups to pursue self-determination and sovereignty in their homelands as the Russian Empire declined.
Communism vs Capitalism
Many parts of the Russian Empire did not readily embrace the communist ideology and system imposed by the Soviet Union. This caused constant tension, unrest and resistance. With the fall of communism after 1991, these regions were quick to leave.
Democracy
The authoritarian nature of Russia’s imperial and communist governments led occupied territories to yearn for liberal, democratic institutions and ideals. Independence offered a path to democracy and greater connections with the West.
Economic Problems
The economic failings of the later Russian Empire and Soviet Union, with instability, shortages and lack of development, fueled separatist movements.
Policy of Self-Determination
Communist/Soviet policy of self-determination for minority ethnic groups within their borders also ironically encouraged independence movements.
Power of the West
Western countries like Britain, France and the US opposed Russian imperial expansion. Western economic and military aid often emboldened breakaway movements.
Current Status
The 14 nations explored in this article have now been fully independent from Russia for over 30 years. Most have transitioned to capitalist democracies and sought greater ties with the European Union and NATO – much to Russia’s chagrin. However, most still have close economic, linguistic, ethnic and cultural links with Russia. The sizeable Russian minorities in several of these countries remains a source of tension with Moscow to this day. Russia maintains a strong political, economic and military interest in what it considers its “near abroad” or traditional sphere of influence.
Recent years have seen Russia take aggressive measures to retain influence, such as the annexation of Crimea from Ukraine and support for breakaway regions like Transnistria in Moldova and South Ossetia in Georgia. But Russia has so far stopped short of attempting to directly control its former territories, acknowledging their sovereignty. Global conditions may change, but for now these 14 nations appear firmly established outside of Russia’s borders.
Countries Once in Russia Now Fully Independent:
| Country | Empire | Years in Russia | Regained Independence |
|---|---|---|---|
| Finland | Russian Empire | 1809-1917 | 1917 |
| Poland | Russian Empire | 1795-1918 | 1918 |
| Estonia | Russian Empire/Soviet Union | 1721-1917/1940-1991 | 1918/1991 |
| Latvia | Russian Empire/Soviet Union | 1721-1917/1940-1991 | 1918/1991 |
| Lithuania | Russian Empire/Soviet Union | 1795-1917/1940-1991 | 1918/1991 |
| Belarus | Russian Empire/Soviet Union | 1772-1917/1922-1991 | 1918/1991 |
| Ukraine | Russian Empire/Soviet Union | 1654-1917/1922-1991 | 1917/1991 |
| Moldova | Russian Empire/Soviet Union | 1812-1917/1940-1991 | 1917/1991 |
| Armenia | Russian Empire/Soviet Union | 1828-1917/1922-1991 | 1918/1991 |
| Azerbaijan | Russian Empire/Soviet Union | 1828-1917/1920-1991 | 1918/1991 |
| Georgia | Russian Empire/Soviet Union | 1801-1917/1921-1991 | 1918/1991 |
| Kazakhstan | Russian Empire/Soviet Union | 1731-1917/1936-1991 | 1991 |
| Kyrgyzstan | Russian Empire/Soviet Union | 1876-1917/1936-1991 | 1991 |
| Tajikistan | Russian Empire/Soviet Union | 1885-1917/1924-1991 | 1991 |
| Turkmenistan | Russian Empire/Soviet Union | 1881-1917/1924-1991 | 1991 |
| Uzbekistan | Russian Empire/Soviet Union | 1865-1917/1924-1991 | 1991 |
Conclusion
In summary, the growth and decline of the Russian Empire and Soviet Union over the last few centuries saw Russia gain control of a vast stretch of territories and peoples across Europe and Asia. However, the diverse national identities encompassed in these multi-ethnic empires eventually sought self-determination and sovereignty in the late 20th century as Russian power weakened. This resulted in 14 independent countries emerging from the former borders of historic Russia – Finland, Poland, the Baltic states, Ukraine, Moldova, Belarus, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan. Despite some lingering ties and tensions, these nations now exist outside of Russian domination and are unlikely to return to Russia’s orbit in the near future.