North Africa is separated from the rest of the African continent by the Sahara Desert. The Sahara is the largest hot desert in the world, covering an area of approximately 3.5 million square miles across parts of North Africa including Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya and Egypt.
Overview of the Sahara Desert
The Sahara Desert spans from the Atlantic Ocean in the west to the Red Sea in the east. It stretches across the entire northern part of the African continent, measuring approximately 3,000 miles from east to west and between 800 and 1,200 miles from north to south. The northern edge of the Sahara follows the Mediterranean coastline.
The desert landscape consists of vast expanses of sand dunes, gravel plains, barren rocky mountains, and oases. Temperatures can reach over 120°F during the day while plummeting after sunset. Rainfall is extremely scarce, averaging less than 1 inch per year in most parts of the Sahara.
While the harsh, arid conditions make most of the Sahara uninhabitable, humans have lived along the desert’s periphery for millennia. Berber populations established communities surrounding oases and along the coast, engaging in trade and commerce. The Trans-Saharan trade routes crossing the desert have linked North Africa with sub-Saharan populations for centuries.
Geological Formation of the Sahara
The Sahara Desert has undergone major climactic shifts between wetter and drier conditions over the past few million years. During the Neolithic Subpluvial period from 7000 BCE to 3000 BCE, North Africa had a wetter climate with savanna grasslands and lakes that supported wildlife and human settlements.
A combination of orbital changes and shifting air pressure cells led to the gradual aridification of North Africa beginning around 6000 BCE. The once lush landscape transformed into desert over the course of several millennia. This was the beginning of the formation of the Sahara as we know it today.
Additional factors like overgrazing by livestock and agricultural practices may have also accelerated the rate of desertification. Sand dunes began emerging across North Africa by approximately 2500 BCE.
Key Stages of Sahara Formation
- 7000 BCE – North Africa has a wetter tropical climate with savanna grasslands, lakes, and more vegetation
- 6000 BCE – Gradual desertification process begins as rainfall levels decline in the region
- 4500 BCE – Transition from savanna to scrubland and semi-desert habitats
- 2500 BCE – Widespread emergence of sand dunes and truly arid desert conditions
Over thousands of years, the Sahara transformed into the vast sea of sand that now serves as a barrier between North Africa and the rest of the continent. The extremely arid conditions have persisted for the past 2500 years.
Sahara Desert Barriers
The Sahara Desert creates both physical and ecological barriers between North Africa and regions south of the desert:
Physical Barriers
- Vast expanses of sand dunes stretching for hundreds of miles make crossing the desert extremely difficult and dangerous. Dunes can reach over 500 feet in height.
- Lack of water sources – there are very few oases and wells across much of the desert interior.
- Extreme daytime heat and lack of shelter from the sun.
- Sandstorms frequently occur and can cause visibility problems.
These challenging physical conditions pose risks to anyone attempting to traverse the Sahara Desert. Even with modern modes of transportation, successfully crossing the desert requires extensive planning, supplies, and expertise.
Ecological Barriers
- Sparse vegetation – lack of grasslands, woodlands, and viable crop/grazing land.
- Very limited wildlife populations able to survive in the arid conditions.
- Lack of permanent freshwater sources like lakes and rivers.
The extremely harsh desert environment creates ecological barriers, making settlement and sustaining communities difficult. Modern technology and infrastructure allow human populations to exist along the desert’s periphery, but the interior remains largely inhospitable.
Influence on Human Settlement
The barriers imposed by the Sahara Desert have influenced patterns of human settlement and civilization in North Africa over thousands of years:
- Communities clustered around oases where permanent water sources facilitated agriculture and trade routes.
- Settlements emerged along the coastlines where maritime resources could support larger populations.
- Difficulty crossing the desert interior limited major settlement south of the Sahara. North African populations were somewhat isolated from other groups.
- The Sahara imposed limitations on overland trade and communication from North Africa into the African interior until the domestication of the camel around 200 CE.
While the Sahara Desert formed gradually over millennia, the emergence of this extremely arid, near-impassable barrier had a major influence on where and how human civilization developed in the region. Permanent settlements flourished along the coast and in oases, while the hostile desert interior remained sparsely inhabited.
Trans-Saharan Trade Routes
Despite the physical barriers imposed by the Sahara, there were opportunities for trade and economic exchange between North Africa and sub-Saharan populations. Trade routes crossed the desert to facilitate this commerce and cultural exchange.
Early Trans-Saharan Trade
Early trans-Saharan trade was very limited due to the difficulty of crossing the desert by foot. However, some major trade goods were transported along routes through the western Sahara as early as 300 BCE:
- Salt – Mined in areas like Taghaza in the Sahara and traded southward into West Africa.
- Gold – Iron Age gold extraction began in parts of West Africa like Ghana around 500 BCE.
- Slaves – Some slave trade activity occurred across the desert.
Other Saharan goods traded south included ostrich feathers and eggshells. Early trade activity remained small-scale and infrequent compared to later centuries.
Growth of Trans-Saharan Trade
The introduction of the domesticated camel to North Africa around 200 CE proved revolutionary for trade across the Sahara. Camels were well-suited to desert travel with traits like:
- Ability to go lengthy periods without water.
- Adapted for navigating sandy terrain.
- Tolerance for extreme heat.
With camels, traders could cross wide swaths of desert while transporting sizable quantities of goods. Saharan trade flourished in products like:
Goods Traded North | Goods Traded South |
---|---|
Gold | Salt |
Kola nuts | Textiles and cloth |
Leather goods | Tools and metal goods |
Ivory | Horses |
Ostrich feathers | Glass beads |
Slaves | Books (Qurans) |
Trade expanded across trans-Saharan routes from the 8th to 16th century CE, facilitating economic prosperity and cultural exchange until sea trade began replacing overland routes.
Trans-Saharan Slave Trade
One of the major commodities transported along the trans-Saharan caravan routes was human captives from sub-Saharan Africa destined for sale in the northern Mediterranean markets. While small-scale slave raiding and trading occurred earlier, the trans-Saharan slave trade expanded significantly after the camel was introduced.
Scale of the Trans-Saharan Slave Trade
It is challenging to estimate the full extent of the cross-Saharan slave trade given limited records. However, historians suggest several key points about its scale and impacts:
- An estimated 6-7 million slaves were taken north across the Sahara between 650 and 1900 CE.
- The height of the trans-Saharan slave trade occurred between 1500 and 1600 CE.
- The sex ratio of traded slaves was around 2 males to every 1 female.
- Many died crossing the desert, though death rates diminished later once routes became more established.
- Most captives came from agricultural societies in West Africa.
The trans-Saharan slave trade had economic, social, and political impacts on both West African and North African societies over many centuries.
Destinations and Roles of Saharan Slaves
Slaves transported across the Sahara Desert ended up in three primary regions and served various roles:
- Morocco, Algeria, and Tunisia – Slaves served as domestic servants, soldiers, and concubines.
- Libya and Egypt – Many served as agricultural laborers or domestic servants.
- Middle East – Some were sold further east to labor in homes or agriculture, while boys were trained as slave soldiers.
Northern African societies relied extensively on the trans-Saharan slave trade to acquire labor for both urban and rural activities. The Arabic word ‘abd, meaning slave or servant, is still common in names across the region, reflecting this historical legacy.
Decline of Trans-Saharan Trade
After thriving for centuries, trans-Saharan overland trade began to decline around the late 16th century for several reasons:
- Portuguese expansion of maritime trade routes along the West African coast, undercutting overland trade.
- Morocco and the Ottoman Empire became less dependent on Saharan gold.
- Europeans established alternative trade relationships with West African kingdoms.
- Growth of legitimate internal West African trade networks reduced involvement in trans-Saharan trade.
While camel caravans continued crossing the Sahara, the overall volume of trade diminished substantially from its peak. However, the Sahara continued to serve as a major cultural and migration barrier between North Africa and the rest of the continent into modern times.
Trans-Saharan Migration
Historically, the Sahara impeded substantial migration and population movement between North and South. However, there were some notable migration events across the desert over the centuries:
- Banu Hilal Arabs – Migrated from Egypt westwards across the Sahara in the 11th century CE before settling in Morocco and Mauritania.
- Moroccan nomadic herders – Some groups like the Maqil Arabs have moved livestock annually into the Sahel grasslands south of the desert.
- Tuareg nomads – Traditionally traversed the Sahara between North Africa and Sahel West African regions.
These groups adapted cultural traditions and economic activities to survive in the harsh Saharan environment. While many migrations were limited to desert peripheries, they contributed to cultural fusion between North and West Africa.
Modern Transportation Across the Sahara
Modern technology has made transportation through the Sahara Desert much more feasible. Long-distance travel relies extensively on the following forms of modern transportation:
Motor Vehicles
Trucks and 4×4 vehicles can successfully navigate desert tracks from North to South. Hazardous sections prone to sand drifts sometimes require special assistance. Long trans-Saharan routes include:
- Tar Road from Algiers to Lagos
- Trans–Sahara Highway from Algeria to Nigeria
- Cairo-Dakar Highway crossing the central Sahara through Mali
Railways
Several railways now cross the Sahara carrying freight and passengers:
- Morocco Western SaharaRail planned to connect phosphate mines to the coast.
- Mauritania Railway transports iron ore across northwest Sahara.
- Tazirbu to Zouérat Railway in Mauritania runs over 500 km across the desert.
Air Travel
Airplanes provide the fastest way to directly cross the Sahara. Major airports located in desert border cities like Nouakchott, Gao, and Kufra facilitate air travel over the region.
Modern technology has enabled trans-Saharan transportation but has not led to major migration or settlement in the desert interior. The Sahara remains a sparsely populated barrier.
Efforts to Cross the Sahara
The Sahara remains an extremely dangerous region to cross, requiring great preparation and caution. Some notable modern Saharan crossing efforts include:
- Michael Asher – Crossed west to east solo in 2006 relying on camel transport.
- Felicity Aston – Skied across the Sahara North to South solo in 2012.
- Philippe Bourseiller – Crossed from Algeria to Senegal on camel in 2000.
Such feats illustrate the courage and perseverance required to withstand the Sahara’s harsh conditions. Most folks crossing the desert today opt for motorized vehicles or airplanes.
Conclusion
The Sahara Desert has served as a major physical and ecological barrier separating North Africa from the rest of the continent for millennia. The arid landscape limited human migration and settlement, while also restricting trade and communication between regions North and South. The introduction of the camel enabled trans-Saharan trade to thrive for centuries until maritime trade replaced overland routes.
While still treacherous, modern transportation technology has made crossing the Sahara more feasible. However, the desert itself remains sparsely inhabited, with populations clustered at oases and along the coast. The Sahara continues to stand as a stark dividing line on the map of Africa.