Perfectionism is a personality trait characterized by a person’s strive for flawlessness and setting exceedingly high performance standards accompanied by overly critical self-evaluations and concerns regarding others’ evaluations. Research shows that perfectionism is common, with over half of the general population reporting some perfectionist tendencies. While perfectionism was once thought to be a unidimensional construct, it is now understood as multifaceted, with both positive and negative aspects. This article will provide an overview of perfectionism according to psychological research, including its prevelance, dimensions, causes, associated characteristics, and effects on mental health and performance.
How Common is Perfectionism?
Perfectionism is relatively widespread, with studies estimating that about 25% of the general population has perfectionist tendencies. Perfectionism appears to be somewhat more common among certain demographics:
- Women tend to report higher levels of perfectionism than men.
- Perfectionism is more prevalent among younger adults.
- Individuals from developed countries show higher rates of perfectionism.
- Perfectionism is more common among people in professional occupations that emphasize status and achievement.
Within clinical samples, perfectionism is notably elevated in people with eating disorders, anxiety disorders, and depression. Up to 70% of people with obsessive-compulsive disorder exhibit perfectionism. Thus, while perfectionism occurs across genders, ages, and cultures, it appears somewhat more concentrated among certain groups and strongly linked to various psychological issues.
Dimensions of Perfectionism
Traditionally, perfectionism was viewed as a unidimensional personality trait in which perfectionists simply had exceedingly high personal standards. However, research has demonstrated perfectionism is multidimensional, with different facets and expressions. Two major models have outlined the dimensions of perfectionism:
The Hewitt & Flett Model
Psychologists Hewitt and Flett proposed that perfectionism has three main dimensions:
- Self-oriented perfectionism – having exceedingly high personal standards and motivation to be perfect.
- Other-oriented perfectionism – having unrealistic standards for others and placing importance on others being perfect.
- Socially prescribed perfectionism – perceiving that others have unrealistic standards for you that you feel compelled to attain.
The Frost Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale
Psychologist Frost and colleagues described six facets of perfectionism:
- Concern over mistakes – tendency to react negatively to mistakes and perceive them as failures.
- Personal standards – setting exceedingly high standards for one’s own performance.
- Parental expectations – perceiving one’s parents as overly demanding.
- Parental criticism – perceiving one’s parents as overly critical.
- Doubting of actions – feeling that work is never quite finished or that one could always do better.
- Organization – emphasis on precision, order, and organization.
These models demonstrate the multidimensional nature of perfectionism, involving personal tendencies, attitudes toward others, and perceptions of social expectations.
Causes of Perfectionism
Research has explored various contributing factors that can lead individuals to develop perfectionist tendencies, including:
- Genetics – Twin studies suggest heritability accounts for some variation in perfectionism, though environmental factors still play a key role.
- Parenting – Having parents with high expectations along with being highly critical has been associated with higher perfectionism.
- Insecure attachment – Insecure parent-child attachment relationships are linked to higher perfectionism.
- Adverse experiences – Trauma, neglect, and abuse in childhood have been connected to greater perfectionism later in life.
- Culture – Cultural factors emphasizing status, precision, order, and impressing others are tied to higher perfectionism.
- Personality – Traits like neuroticism have been associated with greater perfectionism.
Thus, while genetics play a partial role, research suggests that environmental influences including parenting, early life experiences, and broader cultural values are significant contributors to the development of perfectionist tendencies. Perfectionism also tends to be elevated among people with certain personality traits like neuroticism.
Characteristics of Perfectionists
Perfectionists commonly exhibit the following psychological and interpersonal characteristics:
- Preoccupation with mistakes and perceived failures.
- Frequent self-criticism and doubts about performance.
- Difficulty being satisfied with achievements.
- Black-and-white thinking.
- Sensitivity to criticism.
- Excessive need for approval and validation.
- Difficulty delegating tasks to others.
- Trouble accepting imperfection in others.
- Interpersonal problems due to unrealistic expectations.
- All-or-nothing thinking patterns.
While high personal standards underlie perfectionism, it is the excessive self-criticism, doubts, need for approval, and maladaptive patterns of thinking that cause distress or problems in relationships. Perfectionism involves a rigid cognitive style focused on imperfections and perceiving outcomes and people in polarized terms.
Perfectionism and Mental Health
Perfectionism has notable implications for mental health and psychological well-being. Research has consistently shown perfectionism is associated with:
- Higher levels of anxiety and depression.
- Increased psychological distress.
- Greater suicidal ideation and self-harm.
- Higher rates of eating disorders.
- Poorer treatment outcomes for depression and anxiety disorders.
The relationship between perfectionism and psychological problems appears to be mediated by factors like greater rumination and self-criticism, poorer coping skills, social isolation, and perceived lack of control among perfectionists when events do not meet their high standards.
Some dimensions of perfectionism may be more problematic than others. Socially prescribed perfectionism and evaluating one’s self-worth based on performance tend to show the strongest links to poor mental health outcomes. Perfectionistic concerns like anxiety over mistakes also tend to be more maladaptive than perfectionistic strivings for achievement.
Perfectionism and Achievement
The effects of perfectionism on performance and achievement are complex. While perfectionism was once viewed as overall positive for achievement, research indicates effects can be mixed:
- In the short term, perfectionism can sometimes enhance effort, motivation, and performance.
- Over the long term, perfectionism often impairs sustained effort and is linked to burnout.
- Perfectionists tend to doubt the quality of their work and ruminate over perceived failures.
- Perfectionism may promote procrastination and poor time management.
- Extreme perfectionism can paralyze action due to fear of mistakes.
Thus, while perfectionism may drive people toward achievement in the short term, it often undermines sustained performance and causes significant distress in the process. Setting flexible, high standards appears to support achievement without the costs of perfectionism.
Some research suggests perfectionistic strivings can enhance achievement if not accompanied by perfectionistic concerns about mistakes and self-criticism. Focusing perfectionism on tasks rather than the self also tends to be less detrimental for achievement. But in general, perfectionism correlates more strongly with psychological distress than enhanced performance.
Treatment of Perfectionism
Since perfectionism maintains psychological problems like depression and anxiety, treatment often focuses on addressing perfectionistic thought patterns. Some evidence-based treatment approaches include:
- Cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) – Identifying and altering unhelpful perfectionistic thoughts and beliefs.
- Acceptance and commitment therapy (ACT) – Reducing struggle against imperfection and promoting psychological flexibility.
- Schema therapy – Addressing underlying schemas related to shame, defectiveness, and the need to meet high standards.
- Psychodynamic therapy – Exploring the origins of perfectionism like childhood relationships with parents.
- Mindfulness-based therapies – Reducing self-judgment and cultivating self-compassion.
Helping perfectionists adopt more flexible and self-compassionate thinking patterns appears key. Perfectionists may also benefit from assertiveness training, managing expectations, and setting incremental goals to avoidance paralysis over perfectionist aims. Psychotropic medication can also help address underlying issues like depression and anxiety exacerbated by perfectionism. Multidimensional approaches tailored to the individual seem most effective for addressing this complex personality pattern.
Conclusion
Psychological research reveals that perfectionism is a multidimensional trait involving exceedingly high personal standards, concern over mistakes, perceived pressures from others, and self-critical thinking patterns. While once seen as wholly positive, perfectionism often causes significant distress and undermines long-term achievement and satisfaction. Treatment can help perfectionists develop greater self-compassion, realistic standards, and adaptive coping skills to improve mental health and performance outcomes. Yet perfectionistic tendencies can persist, underscoring the importance of managing harmful thought patterns to minimize their detrimental impact. With greater self-understanding and evidence-based care, perfectionists can better harness the adaptive aspects of their high standards while mitigating the psychological costs.