The pyramids of Egypt are some of the most iconic and awe-inspiring structures in human history. Towering over the desert landscape, the pyramids have captured the human imagination for millennia. But despite their fame and the extensive research conducted on them, there remain many unanswered questions about these mysterious monuments. One such lingering mystery is who exactly built the pyramids and how were they able to achieve such an architectural feat with the primitive technology available at the time. In this article, we will explore the prevailing theories about who commissioned and constructed the pyramids and the evidence supporting each viewpoint. Getting to the bottom of this historical puzzle will give us insights into the society, economy, and belief systems of ancient Egypt.
Theories on the Builders of the Pyramids
There are several major theories about who was responsible for the construction of the pyramids:
Pharaohs
The most widely accepted view is that the pyramids were built as tombs for deceased Egyptian pharaohs. The ancient Egyptians believed that the pharaoh was a god on earth who ensured the continuation of order in the universe. To help the pharaoh ascend to the afterlife, they built elaborate tombs filled with provisions and decorations. The pyramids were the pinnacles of these tombs, meant to protect the buried pharaoh and provide a symbolic passageway to the heavens. Historical records indicate that pharaohs like Khufu and Khafre ruled during the timeframe when the Giza pyramids were constructed. Their reigns coincided with the ressources and labor required to build such massive monuments.
Elites
Some argue that the pyramids were not just built for pharaohs, but for court officials, elite families, and nobility as well. During the Old Kingdom period when pyramid-building flourished, the Egyptian social structure was rigidly hierarchical, with a prosperous upper class just beneath the pharaoh. Providing lavish burials for this upper crust demonstrated their status and privileges. The high degree of resources invested in pyramids signaled the concentration of wealth and power among elites at the time.
Skilled Craftsmen
Another perspective credits skilled Egyptian craftsmen, builders, engineers, and stonemasons with constructing the pyramids. Proponents of this view point to the technical sophistication and scale of the pyramids, which required meticulous planning, years of phased construction, and domain expertise. The pyramid builders had knowledge of geometry, physics, and material science that they applied to overcome challenges like lifting heavy blocks and aligning structures perfectly. Rather than slaves being forced into construction work, this outlook envisions free skilled workers designing and erecting the pyramids.
Foreigners
Some fringe theories propose that foreigners were behind the pyramid building, rather than native ancient Egyptians. Variations on this idea suggest that cultures from the Near East, Greece, or even the lost city of Atlantis brought pyramid-building knowledge to Egypt. However, mainstream archeologists dismiss these ideas due to lack of direct supporting evidence. The pyramids clearly show Egyptian architectural styles, utilize local stone, and connect to mortuary complexes of pharaohs. Foreign conquest or imitation is unlikely.
Evidence Supporting the Main Theories
What facts and data shed light on who really constructed the pyramids? Here are some key lines of evidence:
Written records
Contemporary written accounts provide clues about the builders. A diary entry from a high-ranking official named Merer discusses his team transporting limestone blocks from Tura to Giza during Khufu’s reign. Papyrus scrolls detail the different crews of workers, supplies, and boats involved in pyramid construction. Graffiti found within pyramids bears the names of work gangs. Together, these documents strongly link pharaohs like Khufu to major pyramids.
Tomb contents
The contents and architecture of pyramids reinforce their purpose as pharaohs’ tombs. Chambers, corridors, and walls feature religious decoration and texts guiding the pharaoh to the afterlife. Artifacts like sarcophagi, jewelry, furniture, and food remains were intended to accompany deceased royals on their spiritual journey. Some later pyramid builders even had hieroglyphs carved into blocks to deter theft by warning of curses.
Resource concentration
Estimates suggest around 2 million stone blocks weighing over 2 tons each were used to build the Great Pyramid at Giza alone. Quarrying, moving, and precisely positioning such massive stones required enormous state power to mobilize labor and wealth on this scale. Only the centralized authority of the pharaoh could marshal the nationwide resources and taxation needed for pyramid building.
Workforce composition
The size of the workforce and division of labor roles point to a mixed group of workers. Unskilled laborers likely provided brute force for hauling and lifting. Skilled stonemasons and architects executed the technical aspects. Overseers managed work crews. Plus, agricultural work would have been impossible during the Nile floods, freeing up farmers for seasonal pyramid labor. This diverse workforce could only be unified under the religious mandate of the pharaoh.
Specialized expertise
While brute labor was essential, those with specialized architectural and engineering knowledge were vital to pyramid building. The design, layout, and symbolic elements required planners. The use of ramps, levers, pulleys, and other technologies needed expert input. This specialist class likely advised the pharaoh and passed down knowledge through generations. They ensured construction accuracy and solved complex problems through applied science.
Conclusions
Given the accumulated evidence, the consensus view holds that the ancient Egyptian pharaohs spearheaded the construction of the pyramids. The pyramids served as these divine rulers’ tombs and tool for ascending into the afterlife. Yet the pharaohs could not have built these monumental structures alone. They relied on different strata of society to make their vision a reality. Elite officials helped finance and administer pyramid building. Skilled craftsmen handled the technical work and engineering puzzles. Corvee labor provided the masses of muscle power needed. Foreign cultures likely had no direct role, as the pyramids were clearly Egyptian projects. While the human effort involved was immense, the pharaohs’ mandate drove this effort by compelling all of society to dedicate their resources and energies to pyramid construction. At its core, the awe-inspiring accomplishment of pyramid building flowed from the totalitarian power and divine status of the ancient Egyptian pharaohs.
References
| Lehner, M. | The Complete Pyramids | Thames & Hudson | 1997 |
| Wilkinson, T. | The Rise and Fall of Ancient Egypt | Random House | 2010 |
| Brier, B. & Hobbs, H. | Daily Life of the Ancient Egyptians | Greenwood Press | 2008 |
| Shaw, I. | The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt | Oxford University Press | 2000 |