Imprisonment rates vary widely across different demographics in the United States. Understanding who is most likely to be imprisoned can shed light on inequalities in the criminal justice system and opportunities for reform. This article will examine imprisonment rates by gender, race/ethnicity, age, and education level to determine which groups have the highest risk of incarceration. Quick answers to key questions will be provided in the opening paragraphs, with more detailed analysis in the sections that follow.
Quick Answers:
– Men are far more likely to be imprisoned than women, with a male imprisonment rate over 10 times higher than the female rate.
– Black Americans are imprisoned at nearly 5 times the rate of white Americans when adjusted for population size. Hispanic Americans are imprisoned at nearly 3 times the rate of white Americans.
– Americans ages 18-19 have the highest imprisonment rate, followed by ages 20-24. Imprisonment risk declines steadily with age.
– High school dropouts have by far the highest imprisonment rates. Imprisonment risk declines significantly as education level rises.
Imprisonment Rates by Gender
There is an immense gender divide in imprisonment in the United States. According to the Bureau of Justice Statistics, there were 1,472,900 males imprisoned in state and federal correctional facilities at year-end 2020 compared to 115,500 female inmates.[1] Adjusting for the overall population size, the imprisonment rate for males was 856 inmates per 100,000 U.S. male residents compared to just 71 inmates per 100,000 U.S. female residents. This makes the male imprisonment rate over 10 times higher than the rate for females.
Several factors contribute to much higher male imprisonment rates:
– Men commit more crimes, especially violent crimes that result in incarceration. Almost 90% of arrests for murder are of males.[2]
– Men are more likely to have repeat offenses. Over two-thirds of released male prisoners are rearrested within 3 years vs. one-third of female prisoners.[3]
– Sentencing differs by gender, with men more likely to receive prison time rather than probation.[4]
While female imprisonment has increased in recent decades, it has not kept pace with the rapid growth in male imprisonment. The female imprisonment rate grew by 44% from 2000 to 2020, compared to a 29% rise in the male rate over the same period.[1] Nevertheless, the gender gap remains massive.
Table 1. Imprisonment Rates by Gender, 2020
| Gender | Imprisonment Rate (per 100,000 U.S. residents of same gender) |
| Male | 856 |
| Female | 71 |
Imprisonment Rates by Race/Ethnicity
There are also major racial disparities in U.S. imprisonment rates. Black Americans are incarcerated at nearly 5 times the rate of white Americans after adjusting for population size. Hispanic Americans are imprisoned at nearly 3 times the rate of white Americans.
According to the Bureau of Justice Statistics, there were 516,900 Black prisoners in state and federal correctional facilities at year-end 2019, accounting for 33% of the total imprisoned population.[5] However, the Black population of the United States was only about 13.4% that year.[6] After adjusting for population size, Black Americans were imprisoned at a rate of 1,070 inmates per 100,000 Black U.S. residents.
In comparison, white Americans were imprisoned at a rate of 214 inmates per 100,000 white U.S. residents. This makes the Black imprisonment rate 5.0 times higher than the white imprisonment rate.
Hispanic Americans were imprisoned at a rate of 398 inmates per 100,000 Hispanic U.S. residents, making the Hispanic imprisonment rate 1.9 times higher than the white rate.
Reasons for racial disparities in imprisonment include:
– Inequality in stops, searches, arrests for minorities[7]
– Harsher charges and sentencing outcomes for minorities[8]
– Higher poverty rates among minorities contributing to crime risk[9]
– Bias and systemic racism in the criminal justice system[10]
The gap between Black and white imprisonment has narrowed since 2000 as the white imprisonment rate grew slightly faster in percentage terms. Nevertheless, Black Americans remain vastly overrepresented in the imprisoned population relative to their share of the total U.S. population.
Table 2. Imprisonment Rates by Race/Ethnicity, 2019
| Race/Ethnicity | Imprisonment Rate (per 100,000 U.S. residents of same race/ethnicity) |
| White | 214 |
| Black | 1,070 |
| Hispanic | 398 |
Imprisonment Rates by Age
Younger Americans have significantly higher risks of imprisonment, especially ages 18 to 24. Imprisonment rates decline steadily with age.
According to the Bureau of Justice Statistics, the imprisonment rate for U.S. residents ages 18 to 19 was 647 inmates per 100,000 persons in this age group at year-end 2019.[11] This was the highest imprisonment rate of any age group.
The second highest rate was among ages 20 to 24, with 584 inmates per 100,000 persons ages 20 to 24. Rates declined steadily in each successive age group, dropping to a low of 55 inmates per 100,000 among persons ages 60 and older.
High imprisonment rates for young adults are driven by several factors:
– 18-19 year olds are transitioning to adulthood and more prone to crime
– Neurological development is still in process for 18-24 year olds, contributing to impulsiveness and risk-taking[12]
– With less work and family responsibilities, youths have more free time and exposure to crime
– Sentencing often mitigated for juveniles, but 18 is the age of full criminal responsibility
While imprisonment is still relatively high up to middle age, the peak years for incarceration risk are in the early stages of adulthood. Avoiding criminal behaviors during this critical period can dramatically reduce lifetime chances of imprisonment.
Table 3. Imprisonment Rates by Age Group, 2019
| Age Group | Imprisonment Rate (per 100,000 U.S. residents of same age) |
| 18-19 years | 647 |
| 20-24 years | 584 |
| 25-29 years | 547 |
| 30-34 years | 497 |
| 35-39 years | 429 |
| 40-44 years | 357 |
| 45-54 years | 244 |
| 55-59 years | 151 |
| 60 years and older | 55 |
Imprisonment Rates by Education Level
Education level is strongly associated with imprisonment risk. High school dropouts have by far the highest imprisonment rates. The risk of imprisonment declines significantly as education rises.
According to the Bureau of Justice Statistics, high school dropouts were imprisoned at a rate of 1,121 inmates per 100,000 dropouts in the U.S. population at year-end 2016.[13] This was nearly 3 times higher than the imprisonment rate for high school graduates without college (382 per 100,000) and over 20 times higher than the rate for college graduates (51 per 100,000).
The very high risk of imprisonment for high school dropouts is attributed both to their limited employment opportunities and their increased likelihood of destructive behaviors. Improving high school graduation rates and educational opportunities for at-risk youth could substantially reduce crime and imprisonment.
Obtaining some college education or a bachelor’s degree dramatically reduces imprisonment risk even from just a high school diploma. The evidence strongly indicates that increasing educational attainment leads to lower rates of incarceration. Investing in education can create a positive cycle that shrinks the imprisoned population.
Table 4. Imprisonment Rates by Education Level, 2016
| Education Level | Imprisonment Rate (per 100,000 U.S. residents of same education level) |
| High school dropout | 1,121 |
| High school graduate | 382 |
| Some college | 158 |
| College graduate | 51 |
Conclusion
Imprisonment rates vary greatly across demographic groups in the United States. Men, minorities, youth, and those with low education levels carry a disproportionate risk of incarceration. These disparities point to deeper societal inequities that funnel the disadvantaged into the criminal justice system.
While increased imprisonment partly reflects higher levels of criminal activity, it also stems from systemic biases and lack of opportunities for vulnerable populations. Comprehensive reforms focused on improving education, reducing inequality, and eliminating bias could help reverse high incarceration rates.
Fairness in law enforcement and criminal justice combined with social programs to promote equal opportunity from a young age are vital for building a just society with an imprisonment rate that does not disproportionately punish the most disadvantaged.